Four quartets

Four quartets Four Quartets in the Light of Eliots Critical Theory Four Quartets is one of the most serious and longest poems of T S Eliot. It is very much philosophical in its tone and theme. Eliot considered Four Quartets his masterpiece (Johnston: 2005), as it draws upon his knowledge of mysticism and philosophy of life. It consists of four long poems, Burnt Norton, East Coker, The Dry Salvages, and Little Gidding, each in five sections or movements. The five sections are said to be symbolically representing particular elements like air, earth, water and fire; and they also suggest Christian holy days Ascension Day, Good Friday, the Annunciation and Pentecost respectively (Sexton. 279). Although they resist easy characterisation, they have many things in common: each begins with a reflection on the geographical location of its title, and each meditates on the nature of time in some important respect-theological, historical, physical, and on its relation to the human condition. Talking about the subject matter of the poem, Rees (64) remarks that the essential focus or unifying idea, of the Four Quartets is describing eternal reality which the poet tries to search through mortal time. He says that Eliot has tried to give a kind of philosophic cum artistic summary of his various social concepts and beliefs in these quartets. A reflective early reading suggests an inexact systematic approach among them; they approach the same ideas in varying but overlapping ways, although they do not necessarily exhaust their questions. Eliot proclaims that the Four Quartets are straightforward, told in the simplest language possible (Bellin: 2003). However, Bellin argues whether the poets claim of simplicity i.e. acceptable or not. He quotes a few other critics who agree on the point that because the subject matter in the Quartets is not an ordinary thing, so the language used to describe such ideas mostly avoids simplicity. Dallas (193) gives her opinion, with special reference to Four Quartets, about Eliots consistency with his poetic stan dards in the practice of his own poetry. She writes that T. S. Eliots in his prose and plays or poetry has maintained an increasingly developed understanding and usage of the doctrines that an indivisible association is found there between form and substance in his work of art. She has specially written about the association between Eliots critical thoughts and poetic practice. She compares the content and structure of different poems especially of the Quartets and finds an appropriate correlation in them. The form of a poem develops and takes its shape from the order which is inherent in the material, or substance of the poem (Dallas, 194). From various angles this long poem of four sections has been commented upon by critics. Many critics have found the Eliots proclaimed characteristics of impersonality in the poem. The relationship of mater and form of any poem is considered very significant to show artistic expertise objectively. Fussel (212) finds a correlation between the content and the form of this long poem. He says that the structure of Four Quartets as compared to its subject matter is both a innate and expected consequence of techniques and concepts formerly used by Eliot and, at the same time, exceptional not only in Eliots own poetry but also in the entire English literary tradition. However Fussel is also of the opinion that in the Quartets, what we are offered to view is not what every individual can perceive on his own but it is rather the eyes of a single personality that shows us what we see. Even then the critic concludes that such is the skill to develop the theme that a reader feels himself as the p art of the experience. His poetic works are a kind of externalization of aesthetic and emotional images mixed together with explanation and annotation by the interpreting understanding, a combination of personal contemplation and open public dialogue (Fussel. 213). He further says that the structure of Four Quartets is outcome of the poets experience, which is artistically developed by intellectual analysis and the depiction of emotional state. Fussel also talks about Eliots concept of unification of sensibilities but with mixed comments of achieving it. He says: In the Quartets, the opposites of intellect and sensibility, thought and feeling, do achieve union, but the gulf is deepened while the bridge is under construction (214). He means to say that in comparison to Eliots early works, the poem Four Quartets shows a delay resolution of the unifying devices, which the poet does on purpose. He says that Eliot knows the limitations of the modern man to understand the universal realities not so easily, therefore, first of all, he had to take to direct description of his religious thoughts and, then, by describing the concept of incarnation, Eliot achieves the union of the opposites in the Quartets. Dallas (6, 7) writes in detail Eliots use of opposite images to describe the opposite universal forces at work. She quotes lines from the different sections of the Quartets, which simultaneously mention life and death, cold and hea t, haze and light, dead, and living and the beginning and the end. All this is to depict impersonally the dual effects of the subtle universal laws. The poet, here, requires the intelligence and concentration of the reader to feel and understand the undertone of the message of the poem. Written between 1935 and 1942, they mark the end of Eliots major poetic achievement. As a poet, Eliot was by no means prolific. So much greater his merit of creating, in quite a few great poems, an imaginary world which has haunted poetry ever since. If he has not got whole shelves of books to boast of, he is, in exchange, an accomplished master of concentration and ambiguity. We have seen him as an innovator, as a difficult poet, a magician of the understatement. The Four Quartets are his last feat of magic (Vianu). The effect is mystifying. Soothing is the first attribute that comes to mind in connection with Eliots Four Quartets (Vianu). If anything, then, these soothing Quartets are first and foremost poems of the mind. Emotion mastered, love reconsidered, sensibility dissected by serene thought. The Quartets have many names for their mystical goal of knowledge outside language still point, pattern, love, consciousness (Bellin: 2003). The masterly use of language plays very impo rtant role in bringing forth the desired meaning in a situation especially describing an abstract phenomenon. According to Bellin, Eliot has adequately used most of the language tools, which has made it possible for him to pronounce his mental feelings agreeably although, the poet has been denying his mastery over the adequate use of words. Bellin further says that such a paradoxical use of language can well be seen in Burnt Norton-the redemptive power of language and the distaste for language: Words move, music moves Only in time; but that which is only living Can only die. Words, after speech, reach Into the silence. Only by the form, the pattern, Can words or music reach The stillness (li. 137-142) Words strain, Crack and sometimes break, under the burden, Under the tension, slip, slide, perish, Decay with imprecision, will not stay in place, Will not stay still. (li. 149-153) Bellin (2003) quotes Hay who comments, One critic proposes that the poem uses a stream-of-consciousness methodthough whose consciousness is a crucial question (Hay; 161); and he swiftly proclaims that in the poetry produced at some later stage, the perception and consciousness are clearly Eliots own (Hay 161). In case of the Quartets, the poets consciousness and the quality of the Quartets impersonality come under question. Bellin, then, quotes Thompson who suggests finding out a certain formula as to read the Quartets impersonally as desired by the poet. Melaney (151) appreciates Eliots mastery over the use of befitting language in Quartets. With particular reference to the Quartets, he says that Eliot usually enjoys adopting a style of expression that facilitates him to put forward abstract and theoretical proclamations as crystal clear and indisputable truths. The illustration of the time paradoxes in this poem is so h3 that it constitutes a kind of poetics for the young poets especially regarding the use of the appropriate language. Boaz (32), by quoting Ruth Berges, says that Eliot wanted to write poetry so transparent that we should not see the poetry, but that which we are meant to see through the poetry. And this is possible only through the use and application of a language that should be most befitting to convey the poet to the readers not only aurally but visually too. Speaking about the start of the poem, Brown (2003) says that the imagery of the rose garden takes the readers along with the poet. He says that the world created by the poet becomes the imagined world of the readers; it is all because, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the poetry creates the conditions to fulfill its own inter-personal invitation. This is the relation between the poem and the readers, not between the poet and the readers. The poet has to be an observer as before the composition of his poem so he has to remain after its composition. This is what is skillfully done by Eliot in his Quartets. To come back to the late summer of Burnt Norton, the poem goes on with memories of youth silenced by the lullaby of elderly thoughts. There is a trilling wire in the blood, and this blood still sings below inveterate scars. But the old wars are long forgotten, or, in Eliots words appeased. A still point is mentioned. It reminds the reader of the prayer to the silent sister in Ash Wednesday: Teach us to care and not to care Teach us to sit still He reiterates, time and again, all is always now, and it looks difficult for him to forget what he wants to forget i.e. the loud lament of the disconsolate fantasy. They are all there in a poem which, though is determined to forget certain things and events (old ideal of Ash-Wednesday), has not yet performed this task of forgetting things. Obstinate recollections of old troubles and excitements enliven it: Quick now, here, now, always Ridiculous the waste sad time Stretching before and after It is not only memories that hurt the poet, but also his struggle with the words, which should express them. In Burnt Norton, serene as the tone may be, peace of mind is wishful thinking, and the poets words reveal a restless mind trying its hand at relaxation, but Words strain, Crack and sometimes break, under the burden, Under the tension, slip, slide, perish, Decay with imprecision, will not stay in place, Will not stay still. East Coker (1940), title of the second quartet, is the name of a Somerset shire village.   T.S. Eliot desired that, at the time of his death, his body should be cremated, and the ashes buried at East Coker. Which his second wife dutifully accomplished. This place was visited and inhabited by Eliots ancestors also. That is why we find the start and the main theme of the poem as, In my beginning is my end, reversed later into In my end is my beginning. The specifically literary twist here is that the simple revelry of the imagined rustic men and women is largely rendered in the words and spelling of a probable ancestor of the poet Sir Thomas Elyot (Brown: 2003). In daunsing, signifying matrimonie A dignified and commodious sacrament. (178) This observation shows that Eliot has tried to present a bygone time or persons in their own typical surroundings. This masterly skill of Eliot has been a great means of success to achieve the impersonal tone in his poetry throughout these fragmented poems. The main space of Burnt Norton is, however, the still point of the turning world. Imaginary or not, who cares? Fact is that deep below, at the bottom of the poem, stillness and restlessness coexist. The poet has described here his past, his life philosophy, his achievements, his wishes and disappointments. A dynamic view of life has been mentioned in poetic style. A number of universal contrasting ideas have been put together in fantastic antithetical statements. Vianu, speaking of such opposite facts, says, They sadly go hand in hand, with Eliot inertly watching: Words move, music moves Only in time; but that which is only living Can only die. A tendency of detachment and aloofness encompasses certain sections in the Four Quartets: in East Coker where Eliot puts the metaphor of Christ, the wounded surgeon, in The Dry Salvages, where he mocks augury, in Little Gidding where he transforms German dive-bombers into the Pentecostal descent of the Holy Spirit. Bottum (1995) confirms this wave of detachment in the quartets and says that this lack of involvement starts off as a final point in Eliots desire to turn his knowledge and experience into metaphorical symbols. The development of the performance of an artist, Eliot wrote when he was younger, is a continual extinction of personality. To him the poet is not experiencing his experiences here; he is only standing self-consciously outside experience in order to watch himself experience. In the Four Quartets the self- conscious poet stands outside his temporal experiences in order to find in them a metaphor for the temporal facts he has not experienced. The fundamental experienc e in The Four Quartets that experience to which all other experiences are ordered as metaphors-Eliot always describes in the conditional or the subjunctive or the future (Bottum:1995). And all shall be well and All manner of things shall be well When the tongues of flame are in-folded Into the crowned knot of fire And the fire and the rose are one. But here the views of Stevens (2004) are slightly different. He says, though, in poems like Prufrock and The Waste Land, Eliot is considerably successful in applying his theory of impersonality, but it is certainly Eliots own voice that we hear in the later poetry such as Four Quartets. Stevens is of the opinion that the poet, in Quartets, has become subjective and speaks personally of his own life experiences. He does not find the element of detachment but rather a h3 presence of the poets personality in the Quartets. Finally, Stevens says that Four Quartets, being a religious affirmation, gives way to certain discursive and expository elements that we do not find in his earlier poems. Any how according to many other well reputed critics, Eliot has, in the Quartets, used the kind of images and symbols that as those in The Waste Land and Prufrock, bring forth the poets inner thoughts in an objective manner. Eliot has shown great skill of using characteristic images to expose very abstract concepts in the Quartets. Rees (65) is of the view that it is the use of images that has helped Eliot relate and yoke together the opposite themes in the quartets. He writes, Dry Salvages provide an excellent illustration of how Eliot presents his two related but contrasted themes in the form of dominant images. He points out to the images of river and sea, which represent the concepts of the temporal mutability and eternity respectively. Esty (2003) is of the opinion that Eliots striving after objective style is a successful attempt to bring forth the intended impression of the poem impersonally. He says that the poets effort to make inner voice surrender to outer authority paves way for the artistic impersonality in his poem. For Esty the poetic techniques of Eliot are a practical show of his critical canons. Dennis Brown (2003), talking about the psychological effects of the Quartets, experiences, My own feeling is that the most powerful passages are those which engage the reader in an epiphanic experience which creates a transitional area. He speaks about the readers involvement in feeling the poets thoughts and says that the musical and the therapeutic effects while the description of times hold grips of the reader and engages their mind to be one with the poet. Brown calls this Eliots genius.   Morris Weitz (1952) opines on the use of several symbols in Eliots poetry. He especially takes the symbol of rose garden and says that Eliot has used the symbol of rose garden at several places in his poetry to depict the temporal experiences, which exhibit the immanent character of the ultimately real. Footfalls echo in the memory Down the passage which we did not take Towards the door we never opened Into the rose-garden. My words echo Thus, in your mind Weitz is of the opinion that though the critics have defined the symbol of rose garden with different connotations, the essential meaning has the double impact rose garden as an actual place and the symbolical use of the poets worldly experiences and their possible relation with the Absolute. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.the rose garden symbolizes those moments that show, more than any others, the meeting of the Eternal and the temporal (Weitz:1952) These Quartets are termed as a death and life effort with the words and their meanings. The poetry in them does not seem to matter, at first sight. It does matter a lot, at the deeper level of the poets mood and spirit of innovation (Vianu). Here it is stated that Eliot is not giving preference to how to say out the things but he is more concerned with what to say. It is actually extracting out the emotion from the poets mind in its entirety in the shape of words. In doing so, though, the poet tries his best to put forward everything in the best possible way, the occasional lack of befitting words must not impede the true expression of the ideas especially in an impersonal way. That was a way of putting it not very satisfactory: A periphrastic study in a worn-out poetical fashion, Leaving one still with the intolerable wrestle With words and meanings. The poetry does not matter. The irony falls back on the reader who sees nothing but poetry in the poem (Craven: 2004). In the above quoted lines of the poem, Eliot seems to be talking modestly of his own genius. His critics are of the view that the Quartets do not exhibit only the sublimity of his poetic thoughts but his technical aspect is also at its heights in the Quartets. Craven further says that the readers are compelled to work through the traditional suspension of disbelief while going through this poem. This again tells us Eliots skill of involving the readers to feel, understand and interpret his poetry in an objective way. However, according to Roger Bellin (2003), Karl Shapiro and George Orwell hold contrary views. Bellin reports that Shapiro accuses the Quartets of the complete abandonment of poetry (247), and Orwell insists similarly: Perhaps what we need is prayer, observance, etc., but you do not make a line of poetry by stringing those words together. Bellin also quotes Thompsons opinion saying that a careful reading of the Quartets reveals the poem personalizing the poet as a protagonist in order, in reading, to participate in his struggle (Thompson 83). Talking about the use of adequate images in Four Quartets, Vianu refers to Ash Wednesday and says: Ash-Wednesday is not far behindà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. We feel we are drifting together with the poem on the waves of a whimsical sea. Our life, like anybodys, is a drifting boat with a slow leakage. Here the learned critic understands the feelings of the poet who is trying to convey his thoughts. He speaks of horrors in a blank voice. We do hear about wailings, withering, wreckage, unprayable prayers, failing powers, wastage, primitive terrors, and sudden fury One thing, however, is changed, and this change makes all the difference. Eliot is no longer trying to terrify. He shuns away his anger and revolt. He tries to look resigned (Vianu). Sexton (280) has pointed out Eliots making of Cross in the Quartets. the four quartets respectively concern the way up, the way back, the way forward and the way down as spoken of by Eliot in Dry Salvages III. We first see these four directions in Burnt Nor ton II. With these directions or movements in mind Sexton finds the traces of the making of Christian Cross in the poem. This shows a subtle way of portraying religious images in an objective way upholding the poetic concept of impersonality. Eliot, the literary critic, repeatedly put aside from him the flights of abstruse reasoning. Of course, literary critics will go on dissecting the philosophy of the Quartets. Eliots wish was that poetry should be felt before it was understood. This is one of the reasons why these quartets should be handled carefully. We must learn to protect the fleeting feelings they delicately outline. Philosophy may have had a part in these poems, but only as a discipline of mind. The main thing is that these Quartets reveal something unique in Eliots poetry: a warm directness. This evidence of attachment to man and life in Eliots creation can hardly be stressed enough. Reading these lines, we realize why Eliot hated those critics who called him learned and cold. The more the poet writes about indifference, peace of mind, detachment and so on, the more attached he feels to everything. His former ties to the world were grumbling. He kept feeling hurt and howled out. This new attachment is spiteless ; it is generous and warm. The warmth of a poet who hides in his poetry, a heart for all seasons. In his own words: music heard so deeply That it is not heard at all, but you are the music While the music lasts. Danby (79,80), evaluating the over all impact and feeling of the Quartets, says that here the poet makes the reader move along with him for the full satisfaction of the three dimensional experience while reading the poem. He means to say that Eliots poetry is so encompassing that it leaves nothing go unfelt. In spite of several difficulties, the poet is successful in turning a whole generation of readers to experience the feelings. Danby further says: They (Quartets) are themselves both poems and criticism of poetry (80). Danby is stating here the corresponding accord between Eliots criticism and his poetry. They also practice what they preach(p.80). Towards the end of his article, Danby speaks about Eliots mastery of imagery. He says that the poet is quite capable of finding and using such comprehensive images that exhibit the complexities of the poets mood. They are used as objective correlatives to feelings or thoughts (Danby: 84). Although many critics have found the Quartets in keeping with the poets concept of impersonality, Melaney (148), like Stevens, parts his way with the rest of the critics. He writes, His (Eliots) canonization as a literary icon has prevented his readers from considering his poetry as a record of personal change. He says that the subject matter of the Quartets is not wholly in accordance with his critical canons. Here we find a great deal of his autobiographical account that makes the poem a personal life sketch. The account or subject matter may be personal, but it is the way of presentation that makes it personal or impersonal as defined by Eliot. Hence, if we look at the way things have been talked about in the Quartets, the impersonal tone is more obvious than the personal. Fussell (217) says, in the Quartets, on the other hand, he forges a more personal form by using only the first person, and yet he creates an illusion of the impersonal by splitting up the single personality into contrasting moods and by giving the speaker a public as well as private voice. Thus, apart from the observations of a few critics, most of the poem seems in conformity with Eliots concept of impersonality. The intended abstract idea of time has been presented in such an objectified manner that the reader feels one with the feelings of the poet while going through the poem. References: Bellin, Roger. The Seduction of Argument and the Danger of Parody in the Four Quartets. http://alum.hampshire.edu/~rb97/eliot.html> 29-10-2005 Bottum,J.WhatTSEliotAlmostBelieved. First Things, Vol. 55. (Aug. 1995). http://www.firstthings.com/ftissues/ft9508/bottum.html> 20-4-2006 Brown, Dennis. Literature Theology, Vol. 17. No. 1, March 2003 Craven, Peter. The Urbane Mysticism of Old Possum. Financial Review Oct. 01. 2001 http://afr.com/articles/2004/09/30/1096527854077.html 17-06-2005 Dallas, Elizabeth S. Canon Cancrizans and the Four Quartets. Comparative Literature, Vol. 17, No. 3. (Summer, 1965). Danby, J. F. Intervals During Rehearsals. Cambridge Jul. 02, 1949. Esty, Jed. Four Quartets, National Allegory, and the End of Empire. The Yale Journal of Criticism 16.1 (2003) 43 Fussell, B. H. Structural Methods in Four Quartets. ELH, Vol. 22, No. 3. (Sep. 1955). Melaney, William D. T. S. Eliots Poetics of Self: Reopening Four Quartets. Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics, No. 22 (2002). Thes. PhD. (Abstract). Columbia University. 1980. Sexton, James P. Four Quartets and the Christian Calendar. American Literature, Vol. 43, No. 2. (May, 1971). Rees,Thomas R. The Orchestration of Meaning in T.S. Eliots Four Quartets. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 28.1 (Autumn 1969): 63-69. Stevens. http://ieas.arts.unideb.hu/faculty/materials/usliterature.doc.> 19-10-2005 Thompson, E. (1963).T. S. Eliot: the man and his work.Carbondale: Southern University Press. Weitz, Morris. Modern American Poetry. http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/a_f/eliot/norton.htm> 8-10-2005 Weitz, Morris. Modern American Poetry. http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/a_f/eliot/norton.htm> 8-10-2005 Vianu,Lidia. T.S.Eliot:TheFourQuartets.

Futile Dreams of Escape in The Glass Menagerie :: Glass Menagerie essays

Futile Dreams of Escape in The Glass Menagerie      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "I have always been more interested in creating a character that contains something crippled. I think nearly all of us have some kind of defect, anyway, and I suppose I have found it easier to identify with the characters who verge on hysteria, who were frightened of life, who were desperate to reach out to another person" (Rasky 134). This statement of Tennessee Williams supports the idea that he incorporates something crippled into all his major characters.   In his play, The Glass Menagerie, Williams portrays a crippling mother and child relationship. He clearly illustrates that none of the characters are capable of living in the present. The characters believe that happiness will be found in their repeated quests for escape from the real world. As such, they retreat into their separate worlds to escape life's brutalities.    Set in Depression-era St. Louis, the overbearing Southern ex-charmer, Amanda Wingfield is the de facto head of the household. A former Southern belle, Amanda is a single mother who behaves as though she still is the high school beauty queen. Williams' still-resonant study reveals her desperate struggle with the forces of fate against her dysfunctional relationship that looms and grows among her adult children. (Gist)    Laura, Amanda, Tom, and Jim resort to various escape mechanisms to avoid reality. Laura, fearful of being denigrated as inferior by virtue of her innate inability to walk, is shy and detaches herself from the unfeeling modern world. Amanda tries every means to integrate her into society, but to no avail. She sends her to business school and invites a gentleman caller to dinner. She is both unable to cope with the contemporary world's mechanization represented by the speed test in typing and unable to make new acquaintances or friends due to her immense inhibition with people. Her life is humdrum and uneventful, yet it is full of dreams and inundated with memories. Whenever the outside world threatens Laura, she seeks solace and retreats to her glass animal world and old phonograph records. Amanda, her mother hints at the alternative of matrimony for fiasco in business careers and Laura "utters a startled, doubtful laugh. She reaches quickly for a piece of glass." (Williams, ). The gl ass menagerie becomes her tactile consolation.    The little glass ornaments represent Laura's self and characterize her fragility and delicate beauty.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Written and Unwritten Constitutions

Identify and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of written and unwritten types of constitutions. A constitution is a body of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or organization is governed, especially when embodying the rights of subjects. A constitution sets out how all the elements of Government are organized and how power is carved up among different political units. It contains rules about what power is wielded, who wields it and over whom it is wielded in the governing of a country.As a kind of deal or contract between those in power and those who are subjected to this power, a constitution defines the rights and duties of citizens and the devices that keep those in power in check. A constitution is the supreme law of the land in any given country and no other law may conflict with it, nor may the government do anything that violates it. Constitutions exist as national and regional. Two types of national constitutions that exist are the written (codified) constitution and the unwritten (uncodified) constitution.Countries like the United Kingdom, Israel and New Zealand possess the unwritten constitution while countries like India, United States and states of the Commonwealth Caribbean possess the written constitution. A written constitution is one that is contained in a single document which is the one source of constitutional law in a state. Written constitutions are often the product of some dramatic political change such as a revolution as was the case of America and the gaining of independence by the Commonwealth Caribbean countries from Britain.The process by which a country adopts a constitution is closely tied to the historical and political context driving these fundamental changes. The legitimacy and longevity of codified constitutions have often been tied to the process by which they were initially adopted. States that have codified constitutions normally give the constitution supremacy over ordinary s tatute law. Unwritten constitutions are the product of an ‘evolution’ of laws and conventions over centuries. There are advantages and disadvantages to both types of constitutions.Major principle and key constitutional provisions are entrenched, safeguarding them from intervention by the Government of the day. An entrenched constitution cannot be altered in any way by a legislature as part of its normal business concerning ordinary statutory laws. The strongest level of entrenchment exist in those constitutions that state that some of the most fundamental principles are absolute, i. e. certain articles may not be amended under any circumstances. For example the German Federal Constitution which states that human dignity on the basis of human rights is protected.The fundamental rights or the right to life are outlined. The Bill of Rights are clearly outlines which deals with rights to equality, human dignity, life, privacy, freedom of speech, freedom of religion and expr ession, labour relations, education, children and legal process. A Bill of Rights place limitations on the Government and creates an area of freedom for the people. Individual liberty is more securely protected and authorative Government is kept at bay. The Government is ‘straight jacketed’, so absolute power cannot be the norm of the government.The Constitution is supreme over ordinary statute law. If there is any conflict between a legal statute and the constitution, all or part of the statute are declared ultra vires by a court, and struck down as unconstitutional. The constitution of the United States had many unforeseen shortcomings which the Founding Fathers could not have envisioned over two hundred years ago. These had to be patched through amendments, but have been honoured by Governments, and no dictatorship has been able to take hold of it.The opposite effect of this was seen with the constitution of Argentina written many years after in 1853 and was a better document, but did not prevent a succession of dictatorial Governments from ignoring it, such as the Peron’s Military Government which ignored the fundamental rights of the people. In Argentina a state of emergency was declared 52 times to bypass constitutional guarantees. Non political judges are able to police the constitution to ensure that its provisions are upheld by other public bodies.The judiciary is unique in that it is not elected, but it is independent. Judges in Trinidad and Tobago and the rest of the Commonwealth Caribbean are appointed by the various Judicial and Legal Service Commissions. As a result no one, especially a corrupt politician can interfere in the work of the constitutional courts. The constitution is protected by the legal bodies of the courts, such as the Supreme Court, the Constitutional Courts or the High Courts of the various countries. The responsibility of the court is to protect constitutionally established rights and freedom.Any constituti onal violation by the executive, such as a politician who abuses the power of his established office can be held accountable in court. This was evident in Trinidad and Tobago, where many felt that the last Prime Minister, Patrick Manning abused the powers of his office, and on many occasions was taken to court for judicial review. The German Constitutional Court is a special court dedicated solely to the protection of the constitution. Constitutional courts are powerful instruments of judicial review with the power to declare â€Å"unconstitutional† a law that is deemed incompatible with the constitution.France has a Constitutional Council which judges the constitutionality of laws before the ratification process. The power of the legislature is constrained, cutting its sovereignty down to size. A crucial function of a constitution and a classic feature of democracy is the division of power among the three pillars of Government, i. e. the legislative, the executive and the ju diciary. The legislature makes laws and monitors the executive. The executive makes policy, proposes laws and implements laws passed by the legislatures and the judiciary tries cases and administer justice.Each arm of the state keeps watch over the powers of the other. The courts can judge the actions of the legislature and the executive but cannot pass laws. The legislature can make laws but cannot hand down judgments or take executive action. The challenge is to ensure that the executives do not wield its authority without being contained by the other branches. Division of power in this way ensures checks and balances within the system in a country. Lord Action’s assumption was, â€Å"power corrupts: absolute power corrupts absolutely†.The concentration of all power into the hands of one individual or group places them in a position to abuse that power and thus to instill fear into the common man, hence the need for the doctrine of the separation of powers in a democ racy. The written document has an educational value in that it highlights the central values and overall goals of the political system. The ceremonial preamble of the Trinidad and Tobago’s constitution makes reference to the supremacy of God, fundamental human rights and freedoms. The American constitution also draws reference to God.The constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 which is called the â€Å"birth certificate† of a new South Africa states the hopes and aspirations of the nation torn apart by apartheid. This preamble recognizes the injustices of the past and honours those who suffered for injustices and freedom and respect for those who work to develop the country and believe that South Africa belongs to all who live in it, united in diversity. One disadvantage of the written constitution is that it is more rigid and may therefore be less responsive and adaptable than an unwritten one.It is the view of many politicians and academics globally that a constitution should grow with the society in keeping with that particular time in the historical development of the country. This type of constitution does not allow for a great amount of organic change over time and does not easily take into account the needs of the democratic system and the people. A majority is needed in Parliament to attempt any kind of modification. The United States constitution is stuck with old provisions that people think are a bad idea, e. . the right to bear arms and the right to a jury trial in federal cases involving more than twenty dollars. After time most of these old provisions are ignored or never used in a modern society, since they are not relevant to the needs of the people. Last year the St. Vincent Government attempted constitutional reform, but needed a majority of seventy five percent of the voters in a referendum. The Government was not able to get this majority, so they are stuck within the confines of their old constitution.Within the las t couple of years the People’s National Movement under the Prime Minister Patrick Manning, of Trinidad and Tobago attempted constitutional reform, but they did not have a majority in Parliament so they went about it in a different way. The draft proposed constitution was printed and widely distributed to citizens of the country so that their views were shared. Throughout the country there were public meetings and consultation with the people. The people were given a forum to express their desire or disgust for the proposed constitutional document.There was also consultation with the leader of the opposition, because the support of the opposition was needed to make any kind of amendment to the proposed constitution. The second disadvantage of the written constitution is that Government power may be more effectively constrained by regular elections than by a constitutional document. In democratic countries, General Elections are held ever so often so that the people can decide who forms the next Government. In the United States, elections are held every four years, but a President cannot serve more than two terms, so he cannot run for office after his second term is up.This is another way to keep someone out of the Presidency for too long, like in some of the African countries where it is noted that Presidents who serve for more than twenty years or so, allow the power to go to their heads, and as a consequent use the constitution and the military to stay in power for an unlimited number of years, which history has proven is unhealthy for the development of those countries, since those countries have been plagued with civil war, unrest and economic problems. The third disadvantage is that constitutional supremacy resides with non elected judges rather than with public accountable politicians.By virtue a politician is accountable to the people and in a democratic country like Trinidad and Tobago if one is not satisfied by a Member of Parliament he can take action, as was the case when a Muslimeen member was disgruntled because his daughter could not attend a Catholic School with her traditional Muslim garb. The gentleman went into the office of the Education Minister and demanded accountability. Others politicians are also asked to publicly account because in those cases the media intervene to voice the grievances of the people. However judges are not accountable to anyone for their actions, whether they are right or dead wrong.They are insulated from outside interference. Judges can be easily corrupted in cases where they have large debts or have vices that they need money to maintain. It is a common sight to see judges at exclusive casinos in Trinidad and Tobago. One of their hobbies is gambling, and it is well known that most gamblers are always in debt because the mathematical probability of all gambling games is designed for the players to lose most of the time. Once criminal elements know which judges are in debt, they can easi ly reach out financially to these judges, and of course for favors in return.In the past in Trinidad and Tobago judges took bribes in the form of money, land, houses, and luxurious estates in order to drop charges, throw out a case or find some legal technicality or loophole to dismiss a case. During the 1970’s, 1980’s and early 1990’s the well known drug dealer and killer Dole Chadee had every single one of his cases dismissed at the Princes Town Magistrate’s court, and it was the same judge who sat on those cases, because he was not accountable to anyone, not even the Prime Minister at the time.The Medellin Drug Cartel in Columbia controlled the drug trade in that country during the 1980’s and they were untouched by politicians and law enforcement during their reign. Judges had to drop charges against any member of this Cartel if they ever went to court because the Cartel Bosses threaten the judges with violence and death. Because these judges ha d the power to drop these cases and were not accountable to any political directorate, they had no choice but to throw the cases out, else they and their families would have face executions by the drug cartel.The fourth disadvantage of a written constitution is that constitutional provisions are enshrined in customs and conventions and may be more widely respected because they have been endorsed by history and not invented or drawn up by humans On major advantage of the unwritten constitution is its flexibility and responsiveness to change. It is easily adapted to change and amendments. It is flexible and adaptable to different customs, and since the British population is more diverse now than ever with immigrants from all different societies, cultures and races, this is important.The laws have been flexible to allow Muslim men to have more than one wife in British society. The laborious process of amendment does not have to be done simply because a minor change in political practic e. For example, if the minimum age to vote was to be changes from 18 to 17, in the United States, a formal amendment would take years any may even fail to happen for a number of years because of procedural reasons. Such a change in the United Kingdom could easily be done in a matter of hours.Therefore the unwritten constitution allows for a great amount of organic change over time, to easily take into account the changing times and needs of the democratic system. It allows itself to be shaped by the needs of the people, adopting as required by circumstances. It is quite common for out of date or unworkable bits of laws to be discarded for new procedures and customs. Non written traditions and customs carry greater weight in the United Kingdom as oppose to the written constitution. The British people are extremely proud of their monarchy, their historical achievements, their progressive democracy, their freedom and dignity.They are the world’s oldest democracy and as a result the people are proud to respect the conventions and uphold law and order in society. The first major disadvantage of the unwritten constitution is that there is no single text that can be invoked and there is no definition of state powers and no limits except â€Å"customs†, meaning that whatever compromise is necessary between current opinion and the Government sense of virtue may come into conflict. The British constitution exists in every single piece of legislation ever passed in Parliament.These also exist in common law, treaties with foreign powers, analysis and comments made by experts such as politicians and academia. Since the British constitution is the product of evolution of laws and conventions over centuries which include written source and e. g. constitutional statutes enacted by Parliament (House of Communities Act 1972, Human Rights Act 1998), and also unwritten sources such as constitutional conventions, observation of precedents, royal prerogatives, customs and traditions , such as always holding a General Election on Thursdays.Altogether these constitute the British constitutional Law. The other disadvantage is that only a select few can acquire such knowledge of the unwritten constitution since they are scattered across many documents. Thus it is only these select few who are able to interpret it and what is worrying is that these people might be the ones to connive in constitutional subversion. Most British people would struggle to put their hands on what their rights are or in which text they can locate these literature.So the responsibilities that goes with being British may never fully be understood by the average citizen because those rights are scattered across a host of different places. The next disadvantage is that â€Å"delete and insert† can be done on the constitution if by chance one day a written one is implemented. Minor violations would go unnoticed because the average citizen is not aware of the various types of British laws. The Parliament could easily fox a written constitution to serve itself and executive members without the public ever being aware of this.Another disadvantage is that limits to state powers are not clearly expressed and this is of great concern to the knowledgeable people of British society. Parliament has unlimited law-making powers and there is no clear separation of powers among the three arms of the Government. Historically the United Kingdom has not had a definition of individual rights and freedoms. The 1689 Bill of Rights sets out the powers of the Parliament, but relies on the notion of residual freedom and the concept of parliamentary sovereignty.Therefore individual rights remained dependent on the ad hoc statutory protection or upon judicial protection under common law. The closest thing the United Kingdom has to a Bill of Rights is the Human Rights Act of 1998 which incorporates the European Convention of Human Rights 1950 into domestic law. The ability of ordinary people to challenge the actions of various institutions of Government is formally limited to the acts of public authority by section six.The new counter- terrorism measures appeared to erode civil liberties in the wake of the September 11th 2001 attack in New York, and the July 7th 2005 bombings of the subway in London. The last disadvantage is the question of British sovereignty. The entry of the United Kingdom into the European Union in 1973 was a major constitutional development, bringing Britain under the supranational jurisdiction of the European Union in a limited number of areas, which has gradually grown over the years.This illustrates the erosion of the United Kingdom unfettered sovereignty. Well known British politicians over the years have commented publicly on this issue of Britain slowly losing its sovereignty. After World Was Two the American troops seized covert plans from the Germans that outlined another future attempt by to unify Europe under German rul e, but this time without the use of war. It entailed the unification of Europe which Hitler wanted to achieve by use of force and the military, and the ultimate destruction of America.This information has been declassified within recent years. One has to question the diplomatic motives behind the driving force of the European Union and its acceptance of Britain into the Union, so Britain should seriously think about it sovereign erosion. Although there are differences between written and unwritten constitutions with respect to their advantages and disadvantages, one must carefully consider the usefulness of a constitution and its promotion of democracy and the rights and freedom of the people.We can see that although the United Kingdom does not have a written document, it is the oldest and one of the greatest democracies in the world. The British people are proud and law abiding. The United Kingdom has so far been a peaceful and stable country, whereas countries like China, Russia, North Korea, Vietnam and Myanmar all have written constitutions, but basic human rights are not enjoyed by a number of citizens of those countries. A perfect example of democracy that truly respects the rights, freedom and aspirations of the people is in the United States where there is a written constitution.

The Human respiratory cardiac systems and how each of these parts affect ventilation The WritePass Journal

The Human respiratory cardiac systems and how each of these parts affect ventilation References The Human respiratory cardiac systems and how each of these parts affect ventilation IntroductionA)  Respiratory System1)  Ã‚  Name the parts of the body that make up the respiratory system. Describe each of these parts and the role they play in ventilationNasal PassageEpiglottisPharynxLarynxTracheaBronchiBronchiolesAlveloi2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Explain how the cells of the alveoli have become specialised  3)  Ã‚  Evaluate whether effective gaseous exchange has been achieved in humans4)  Ã‚  Explain the role of the nervous system in controlling breathing  B)  BLOOD1)  Ã‚  Name 5 components of blood plasma and describe their functions  2)  How does the unusual shape of the red blood cell improve its function?  3)  Ã‚  How is oxygen transported around the body?4)  Ã‚  How is carbon dioxide transported around the body?  5)   A group of muscle cells are respiring faster than usual as they work harder. Explain what affect this will have on the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and why?C) Circulatory System1)   Compare the structure of a capillary , vein and an artery and explain why their structures allow them to carry out their specific functions.2)  Ã‚  Compare the structure of the atria and the ventricles in the heart.3)  Describe the four stages that make up on single heartbeat   4)  If the Sino atrial node is stimulated it triggers a wave of contractions through the heart. How does that process ensure that the atria contract together and ventricles contract from the bottom upwards?5)  Ã‚  An athlete is training for a big competition  ReferencesRelated Introduction A)  Respiratory System 1)  Ã‚  Name the parts of the body that make up the respiratory system. Describe each of these parts and the role they play in ventilation Nasal Passage This is the route that air enters the body. It is structured as a cavity and is divided by a septum, the posterior section is a perpendicular plate of bone and the anterior is a piece of cartilage which separates each nostril. The roof of the nasal cavity is structured of bone. The floor of the nasal cavity is formed from the roof of the mouth, a hard palate at the front and a soft palate behind which consist of involuntary muscle. The nose is lined with ciliated columnar epithelium, a mucous covered membrane which contains mucous secreting cells which trap particles of dust and dirt.   The cilia move the mucous along towards the throat. The hairs at the front of the nostrils trap large particles and smaller particles of dust and bacteria settle in the mucous before being moved along. The mucous provides a protective role to the underlying epithelium preventing it from drying out. The projecting conchae, which is divided into three passages the inferior, middle and superior cavities increases the surface area and spreads the area across the whole of the surface of the nasal cavity. This large surface area provides maximum efficiency to warming and filtering of the air. The warming of the air is due to the large amount of blood vessels of the mucosa. As the air travels it passes the mucosa which is moist and it here becomes saturated with water vapour. Epiglottis This is flap of cartilage a leaf shaped structure which is fibro elastic cartilage attached to the thyroid cartilage. It is covered in stratified squamous epithelium which swings across the entrance of the larynx. Providing and opening a closing mechanism. The structure is purposeful as it ensures that whilst swallowing the flap stops food and drink from entering the trachea. Pharynx The pharynx is a tube which is around 12 cm long. It is positioned behind the mouth nose and the pharynx. Air passes through the larynx through the nasal and oral sections and food only passes through laryngeal sections. The pharynx is lined in mucous membrane, ciliated columnar epithelium in the nasopharynx. In other regions of the pharynx it is lined with stratified squamous epithelium to protect underlying tissues. The pharynx has a layer of tissue called sub-mucosa as well as a layer of smooth muscle which help to keep the pharynx open so that breathing is not stopped from happening.   The air is warmed by the pharynx as alike the nasal cavity Larynx Is made up of several cartilages. These cartilages are all attached to one another by ligaments and various membranes. The thyroid cartilage is the basis of majority of the anterior and posterior walls of the larynx. The epiglottis is attached to the thyroid cartilage. During swallowing the larynx moves upwards and blocks the opening of it from the pharynx. This is where the epiglottis covers the larynx. The larynx provides the link from the pharynx to the trachea. The larynx continues to warm and filter air that passes through. Trachea Is a muscular tube approximately 2-2.5 cm wide. It is made up of three layers of tissue and is held open by with C shaped rings of muscle cartilage. There is soft tissue in between the cartilage which allows flexibility allowing for swallowing. The trachea is lined with ciliated columnar epithelial cells containing goblet cells and mucous glands which cleanse the air and the mucous traps any dust in the inspired air. The cilia of the mucous membrane waft the particles upwards towards the larynx so that they are swallowed or coughed out of the body.   The thin walled blood vessels warm the air as it is contact with a warm surface. The zeros glands moisten the air as it passes. The trachea divides into two to form the bronchi. Bronchi The bronchus is a muscular tube which branches into each lung. It forms the branches of the air duct system.   The bronchus is smaller in diameter than the trachea. The right bronchus is wider but shorter than the left bronchi and is approximately 2.5cm long. The left bronchus is approx. 5 cm long and is narrower than the right. The bronchial walls are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium. The role of the bronchus is to regulate both volume and speed of air into and within the lungs. This is controlled by the parasympathetic nerve supply causing constriction and the sympathetic nerve supply causing dilation. The bronchus also continues to humidify and warm air as well as the removal of particles and foreign bodies. The right bronchus divides into three branches to each lobe before dividing into bronchioles. The left bronchus divides into two branches to each lobe, and then divides into the bronchioles. The smooth muscle allows the diameter of the airways to increase or decrease due to the nerve supply regulation. The bronchi divide, and their structure changes to match their function. The cartilage rings are present however as the airways divide the rings become smaller. The epithelial lining of the bronchus decreases and is replaced with non-ciliated epithelium. Bronchioles Branch off the bronchi, into smaller diameter tubes. They are made up of smooth muscle to ease contraction, and this changes the diameter of the lumen.   Each lobule is supplied with air by a terminal bronchiole. The mucous membrane changes from ciliated columnar epithelium to ciliated simple columnar epithelium with some goblet cells in the larger bronchioles to, no goblet cells and only simple cuboidal epithelium in smaller bronchioles, to non-ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium in the terminal bronchioles. Where there are no cilia present any inhaled particles are removed by macrophages. The air is conducted and contraction occurs to alter smaller tubes to vary the inflow to and from the respiratory system beyond. The bronchioles branch further to alveolar ducts. Alveloi There are thousands (approx. 30 million in adult lungs) of these tiny air sacs in the lungs. The alveoli surround the alveolar ducts. Alveolar ducts are smooth muscular tubes containing alveolar macrophages that engulf foreign matter and end in the alveoli. There are two types of alveolar cells, type I are one cell thick are lined with simple squamous epithelial cells which line and cover the structure. Alveolar type II are also referred to as septal cells. And are placed between type I alveolar cells. Each alveolar sac consists of two alveoli. Type I alveolar cells are where gas exchange takes place. The type II cells contain microvilli which ensure the surfaces between cells are moist. The vast surface area of the alveoli provides an ideal environment for diffusion to occur rapidly through the walls of alveoli and the blood. As well as being one cell tick means that the diffusion is able to take place at great speed as they only have once layer equalling a smaller distance to diffuse through. Over 80% of the surface area of the alveoli is covered in capillaries which allow the haemoglobin in the red blood cells to pick up and drop off oxygen and carbon dioxide effectively. CO2 diffuses out as the O2 is picked up in the red blood cells. 2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Explain how the cells of the alveoli have become specialised   The alveoli contain two types of specialised cells as well as alveolar macrophages. The alveoli are a group of epithelial cells that make up a tissue and carry out specific, specialised roles within the respiratory system and without them gas exchange would not be able to take place. Type I alveolar cells are flat squamous epithelial cells and form the alveolar wall. Gas exchange takes place through the cell membranes and cytoplasm of the alveolar wall. Alveolar type I cells cover 95%% of the alveolar surface. Type II alveolar cells are cuboidal septal cells. They are mixed about with the Type I cells and are the remaining 5% of the surface of the alveoli. These cells secrete a phospholipid substance called surfactant, a fluid which coats the inner surface of the alveoli and keep them moist whilst controlling fluid levels. This reduces the surface tension of the pulmonary fluids and allows gas exchange to take place, and prevents the collapse of the air ways. Alveolar Macrophages Kill bacteria and trap particles. These cells can also transport indigestible substances to the lymph nodes of the lungs to then be exhaled or coughed out of the body. 3)  Ã‚  Evaluate whether effective gaseous exchange has been achieved in humans The large surface area of the alveoli provides the optimum area for gas exchange to take place. The thin epithelium layer separating the air in the alveoli from the blood in the capillaries provides a short travelling distance for the diffusion of gases to take place. The blood in the capillaries lining the alveoli are removing oxygen all of the time. The oxygen concentration is kept low therefore the steep concentration gradient is maintained. The relationship of diffusion is described by: Fick’s law: Rate = surface area x difference in concentration Thickness For diffusion to be efficient the surface area and concentration difference should be as high as possible and the length and thickness of the pathway as low as possible. The thinner the membrane, the faster the diffusion. In the human body an effective gaseous exchange process has been achieved as the concentration difference is maintained as the blood is continually pumped around the body, therefore the blood passing through the capillaries are picking up oxygen from the alveoli and living behind carbon dioxide. The surface area of the alveoli being thin and vast allows the oxygen to pass through at speed. 4)  Ã‚  Explain the role of the nervous system in controlling breathing   Overall control of the respiratory system is by the respiratory centre in the brain which is involuntary. The respiratory muscles require on-going neutral stimuli to function. The muscles contract, changing the size of the thorax, which increases the volume inside the thoracic cavity. This reduces air pressure and the air rushes into the lungs. This stimulates the stretch receptors in the walls of the bronchus. The messages are then returned to the brain by the vagus nerve. This is due to the nerve impulses being transmitted from the respiratory centre, a cluster of neurons in the brain (medulla oblongata and the pons of the brain stem).   When these impulses reach the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles they contract in inhalation takes place. When there are no nerve impulses the muscles relax for a short resting period and the cycle then repeats. When the lungs are fully inflated due to inspiration the pause in the signal causes the lungs to deflate and expiration takes place. There are chemoreceptors which are responsible for detecting changes and they are present in the wall of the aorta, the carotid bodies and the medulla oblongata. The central chemoreceptors which are present in the medulla oblongata detect rises of carbon dioxide and stimulate the respiratory centre, increasing the ventilation of the lungs and reducing the arterial partial pressure of co2. The chemoreceptors respond to changes in the partial pressure in oxygen and the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. The activity of the respiratory centre is adjusted by the nerves in the pons in response to input from other parts of the brain. The inspiration neurons set the rate and the depth of breathing. The axons of the sensory neurons from the aortic bodies are part of the vagus nerve. The peripheral chemoreceptors are conveyed by the vagus nerve to the medulla and stimulate the respiratory centre, the rate and depth of breathing are then increased and the increase in blood pH level stimula tes the peripheral chemoreceptors increasing ventilation, in turn increases carbon dioxide causing an increase in the blood pH levels. B)  BLOOD 1)  Ã‚  Name 5 components of blood plasma and describe their functions   Different sections of plasma contain a different composition. Plasma is made up of 90% water and 10 % dry matter. Plasma is made up of around 7% of plasma proteins. Which are responsible for the osmotic pressure of blood? If the plasma proteins fall the osmotic pressure will be reduced and the fluid will move into the tissues. The thickness of plasma is also due to the plasma proteins such as albumin and fibrinogen. Albumin- provides the osmotic balance and pressure. The albumins are carriers for free fatty acids. Globulins- have several roles in the plasma. They act as immunoglobulins which are complex proteins. They neutralise antigens by binding to them. They also transport some hormones and mineral salts as well as providing inhabitation of some enzymes. Salts- assist in the osmotic balance and the conduction of nerve impulses. Assist With blood clotting as well as transporting CO2. Electrolytes- Have various roles within the plasma including the transmission of nerve impulses as well as muscle contraction and the maintenance of maintaining the pH level of blood. Gases- Are transported around the body in the plasma as dissolved substances. Most of the carbon dioxide in the body is transported as bicarbonate ions in the plasma. Hormones- Hormones pass into the blood directly from the endocrine cells. The blood transports them to the area of the body where they are required for cellular activity. Heat in the plasma is to maintain static core body temperature. Oxygen in the plasma is required for the aerobic respiration in the cells and Waste products such as urea serve no purpose as they are the waste products of protein metabolism. Urea is transported in the blood to the kidneys to be excreted. 2)  How does the unusual shape of the red blood cell improve its function?   Red blood cells are approx. 7 micrometres in diameter they have no nucleus and no intracellular organelles meaning there is more room for haemoglobin to be present in the red blood cell rather than in solution, which is responsible for gas exchange.   The bio concave disc shape of the red blood cell raises the surface and cytoplasmic volume ratio. Allowing vast volume and a large surface area provides the ideal environment for diffusion of gaseous exchange. The red blood cells are packed with chemicals and enzymes which allow haemoglobin to carry oxygen effectively. The biconcave discs, the thinness of their central area allows unloading and loading of oxygen easier. The selectively permeable membrane makes them flexible and smooth allowing them to squeeze through capillaries making gaseous exchange more efficient. All of the haemoglobin that cells contain is close to the surface which is also a contributing factor for exchange of gases being able to take place with ease as this lessens the distance to be travelled. The red blood cells respire aerobically so they do not use of the oxygen that they are carrying. Antigens on the surface of the red blood cells enabling the blood type to be defined. 3)  Ã‚  How is oxygen transported around the body? Oxygen is carried around the body in two ways, 98% in the red blood cells, 2% dissolved in the blood plasma. Once air is breathed in, it enters the lungs via the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and into the alveoli.   The oxygen is diffused into the red blood cells through the walls of the alveoli and the oxygen combines with the haemoglobin in the red blood cells and is transported through the capillaries. The alveoli contain high levels of oxygen therefore diffuses into the blood cells which are low in oxygen as it is deoxygenated blood from the lungs and the concentration difference can be maintained as blood is continually pumped around the body, therefore fresh blood is passing through the capillaries picking up oxygen from the alveoli. Once a red blood cell has picked up the oxygen the enzyme carbonic acid makes Hb molecule less stable which makes them release the oxygen molecules. The oxygen can then diffuse into the cells where it is required. The haemoglobin present in the red blood cells is made up of 4 peptide chains, each of which contains one haem group.   The polypeptide chains hold the haem group in place and help to upload oxygen. Each haem group combines with one oxygen molecule.   The haemoglobin binds to the oxygen and releases it when the concentration falls. When all four of the oxygen binding sites are full, the haemoglobin molecule is described as saturated. When the first molecule of oxygen binds to the haemoglobin in the red blood cells it changes the shape of the haemoglobin making it easier for the rest of the molecules to bind. The pressure from the dissolved oxygen in the plasma helps the oxygen at its binding site. Haemoglobin binds reversibly to oxygen and forms oxyhaemoglobin. The oxygen is bound loosely to the haemoglobin and so when the oxygen is required it can be released with speed. When there is a low pH level in places such as exercising muscles the oxyhaemoglobin breaks down providing the additional oxygen for use by the tissues. When no oxygen is present, none of the haem will be carrying oxygen. When partial pressure of oxygen is at its highest this is when the haem is saturated with oxygen. When the blood flows through the capillaries in the lungs the haem is converted into haemoglobin at speed to supply the respiring tissues. OXYHAEMOGLOBIN DISSOCIATION CURVE Image ref: zuniv.net/physiology/book/chapter15.html The ability of haemoglobin to transport oxygen is affected by the amount of carbon dioxide present. The lungs have a high partial pressure of O2 and a low partial pressure of CO2 In the lungs the more CO2, the oxygen dissociation curve is moved to the right this is known as the BOHR shift. This is due CO2 being removed from the body, here in the lungs. The tissues are low in partial pressure of oxygen and are high in partial pressure of CO2 as the CO2 is being produced as a result of respiration; this is why the RBC needs to deliver more oxygen to the respiring tissues. 4)  Ã‚  How is carbon dioxide transported around the body?   Carbon dioxide travels in the red blood cells and in blood plasma.   The largest fraction 23% of Carbon dioxide travels in the red blood cells as carbaminohaemoglobin (CO2-H6) It binds with the amino groups of amino acids and proteins, by binding to the peptide chains of the plasma proteins in the blood to form carbamino compounds. 70% travels as bicarbonate ions in the plasma (HCO-3) 7% of carbon dioxide is dissolved in blood plasma as CO3 which is a bicarbonate ion. The CO2 binds to haemoglobin and creates Hb-Co2, carbamino haemoglobin, by binding to the polypeptide chains of the haemoglobin molecule. Carbon dioxide is much more soluble in the blood than oxygen is, and there is 4ml of CO2 to every 100 ml of blood. Carbon dioxide enters the red blood cells and combines with hydrogen and forms carbonic acid. The carbonic acid splits into a hydrogen ion (H+) and a bicarbonate ion (HCO3) the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells speeds up the process. The hydrogen ions formed from the dissociated carbonic acid then combines with the haemoglobin in the red blood cells and this makes the haemoglobin less stable in the red blood cell and it causes it to release oxygen.   The carbonic acid is then broken down into CO2 and water and the HC03 in the red blood cell diffuses out into the blood plasma. Once the gathered hydrogen carbonate ions diffuse out into the plasma, this gives the red blood cell a positive charge. Chloride ions (cl-) present in the blood plasma diffuse into the red blood cells from the plasma to maintain a neutral charge; this is known as the chloride shift. The hydrogen ions are taken up by buffers in the plasma and the haemoglobin acts as a buffer in the red blood cell s. The lifecycle of the carbon dioxide molecule is to diffuse from respiring tissues through the capillary walls and plasma into the red blood cells to then be diffused into the alveoli to be exhaled. Carbon dioxide levels vary in proportion to how much the body is being exerted. The harder a person exercise the greater the level of carbon dioxide that will be present. *The diagram above represents my interpretation of the life cycle of carbon dioxide molecule within tissues, plasma and red blood cells               Ã‚  Ã‚                                                                                                            5)   A group of muscle cells are respiring faster than usual as they work harder. Explain what affect this will have on the ability of the blood to carry oxygen and why? During exercise, CO2 diffuses from the respiring cells in the tissues into the red blood cells. Oxygen is required to make ATP, and carbon dioxide is produced as a bi-product of this. As the energy is made the cells in the muscle tissues have a higher concentration of CO2. This CO2 then makes the haemoglobin less stable and it releases more oxygen known as the Bohr Effect. As the muscles are working harder they are respiring faster increasing the requirement of oxygen supply and the concentration of oxygen will be low. During exercise muscles are working harder and respiring faster, and therefore require more oxygen. More oxygen is removed from the red blood cells to supply the muscle tissues, therefore creating a decrease in the oxygen concentration levels and partial pressure.   ‘’Henry’s law states that the quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility’’ (Tortora Dickenson p897). The blood flow through the capillaries increase, forcing the lumen of the veins to expand so that the volume of blood can enter the heart faster, as due to exercise the heart rate will also increase and will be pumping blood at a faster rate than that of at rest. The oxygen will diffuse from an area of high concentration in this case the alveoli to an area of low concentration, during exercise this will be in the respiring tissues. During exercise the blood flow will be focused on supplying the muscles that require the oxygen rather than other areas of the body. Exhalation takes place when the body is forcefully breathing such as during exercise. The myoglobin in mammalian muscles can pick up oxygen from the haemoglobin and store it until it is needed. The respiring cells in the tissues needed oxygen to make the ATP. The ability of the haemoglobin to transport oxygen is affected by the amount of carbon dioxide present. The tissues have a low partial pressure of oxygen, and high partial pressure levels of carbon dioxide as this is where the carbon dioxide is being produced as a result of respiration. C) Circulatory System 1)   Compare the structure of a capillary, vein and an artery and explain why their structures allow them to carry out their specific functions. Arteries vary in size; they have three layers of tissue. Tunica adventitia which is the outer layer of fibrous tissue, Tunic Media which is the middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic tissue and Tunica intima which is the inner lining of squamous epithelium called endothelium. This allows the vessel walls to stretch, absorbing pressure which is generated by the heart. As the arteries branch they become smaller, so in the arterioles (the smallest artery) the tunica media is mainly made up of smooth muscle. This enables the diameter to be controlled and regulates the pressure of the blood. Arteries in comparison to veins have thicker walls so that they can handle the high pressure of the arteriole blood. The sympathetic fibres of the autonomic nervous system kick start the smooth muscle of the blood vessels which increases and stimulates the smooth muscle to contract. This squeezing narrows the vessel wall and narrowing the lumen which is known as vasoconstriction. When the sympathetic stimulation decreases the smooth muscles relax, the lumen increases in diameter and this is known as vasodilation. The elastic arteries are the biggest in the body; they propel blood onwards whilst the ventricles relax. The walls stretch as blood as passed from the heart into the elastic arteries and they can house the surge of blood. They take the blood away from the heart. In comparison to the veins which return the blood to the heart, therefore have thin walls. They do have the same three layers of tissue that the arteries have, however being thinner they have less muscle and elastic tissue in the tunica media as the veins carry blood at a low pressure. Some vein having valves which prevents a backflow of blood, ensuring the blood is directed to the heart. Within the tunica media of the heart is a fold which is strengthened by connective tissue. The veins have a large capacity to hold blood, if there is a haemorrhage this give the veins the opportunity to recoil and can help to stop a sudden fall in blood pressure. The smooth muscle which is present in both the veins and the arteries of the tunica media is supplied by the nerves of the autonomic nervous system in the medulla oblongata. These nerves pass signals to change the diameter of the lumen, and this controls the amount of blood they can contain. Muscular arteries distribute blood to the organs, the tunica media is thicker than the tunica media in other types of arteries as they need to contract and maintain the partial contraction and vascular tone. This can stiffen the vessel wall. This ensures the pressure is maintained and efficient blood flow ensues. Arterioles being the smallest arteries regulate the blood flow from the arteries into the capillaries by regulating resistance. The diameter is smaller and so the friction is greater creating more resistance, and this maintains the correct level and pressure of blood flow. Capillaries vary in diameter. Capillaries are approx. 5-10um, post capillary venules are (10-50um) and muscular venules are 50-200 um. In comparison to veins which are 0.5um – 3cm) the smallest arteries (arterioles are 15-30um in size. The tunica interna in the elastic arteries are well defined elastic lamina within the elastic arteries and the muscular arteries, however in the arterioles are thin. In the capillaries, and post capillary venules there us just an endothelium and basement membrane. This is suited to their function for exchanges of products, as the short distance provides an optimum environment for diffusion. Within the veins there is endothelium and basement membrane with no internal elastic lamina, they do however contain valves, and the lumen is larger than that of arteries. Blood pressure is at its highest in the large arteries and the blood pressure decreases as it passes through the smaller arterioles and into the capillaries. The capillaries having the largest surface area, being thin and permeable allowing for fast diffusion and exchange of products. The tunica media in the arteries is a thick layer, mainly made of smooth muscle this sis to withstand the pulses of blood at a high pressure. The smooth muscle in the arterioles provides a pre capillary sphincter.   This is in contrast to the capillaries which do not have a tunica media layer. The veins have no elastic lamina and carry slower flowing blood at low pressure compared to both the capillaries and the arteries. The Tunica externa varies in the arteries, in the elastic arteries the tunica externa is thinner than the tunica media and in the muscular arteries it is thicker than the tunica media. In the arterioles this is a loose connective tissue layer made up of sympathetic nerves. The capillaries do not have this layer, as their role is to be permeable to exchange materials between blood and nearby cells. Within the veins this layer is the thickest of the three layers. The elastic arteries are composed to conduct blood to the heart and the muscular arteries. The muscular arteries distribute blood to the arterioles and the arterioles in turn supply and regulate blood flow to the capillaries. The capillaries are thin and leaky as they have the role of allowing the exchange of products as mentioned above. They also distribute blood to the post capillary venules which pass blood to the muscular venules. This is where the exchange of nutrients, waste and interstitial fluid takes place. The muscular venules pass blood to the veins and accumulate large volumes of blood. The veins return the blood to the heart and to the veins in the limbs. Therefore the capillary although having a vast surface area, is the thinnest in comparison to veins and arteries which both have the same tissue layers. The arteries and the veins have varying degrees of thickness of these tissues to allow their role to be performed effectively. 2)  Ã‚  Compare the structure of the atria and the ventricles in the heart. The heart has four chambers; the two superior chambers are the atria. They are the receiving chambers of the heart. The two inferior chambers are the ventricles. They are the pumping section of the heart. The atria are a pouch like structure called an auricle and they increase the capacity of the atrium so that it can hold a greater volume of blood. The right atrium receives blood from the three veins, the superior vena cava, the inferior vena cava and the coronary sinus. The right atrium forms the right border of the heart, the blood passes from the right atrium to the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve. The cusps of the tricuspid valves are connected to tendon like cords Chordae tendinae which are connected to cone shaped trabeculae called papillary muscles. The coronary sulcus is the boundary between the atria and the ventricles. In between the right and left atria is a partition called interatrial septum. The interventricular septum divides the right and left ventricles. The right ventricle is 4-5mm in thickness and forms most of the anterior surface of the heart. Inside the right ventricle is a series of ridges formed by raised bundles of cardiac muscle fibres called vabeule carnae. The right atria in comparison are 2-3mm in thickness and have a smooth posterior wall and a rough anterior wall which is formed by muscular ridges called pectinate muscles. The left atria and the right atria form the base of the heart; they receive blood from the lungs through the pulmonary veins. The left atria allow blood flow to the left ventricle through the mitral valve. The atrium have   thin walls as they deliver blood at a lower pressure in comparison to the ventricles which pump blood at a high pressure and through a greater distance and therefore have thicker walls to withstand the pressure. The left ventricle is the thickest chamber of the heart and is approx. 10-15mm. It forms the apex of the heart. Alike the right ventricle is contains trabeculae carnae and has chordae tendinae. The blood passes from the left ventricle to the aortic valve. The right ventricle has a smaller workload and pumps blood a shorter distance to the lungs at a lower pressure. The right and left ventricles are two separate pumps, which simultaneously eject equal volumes of blood to the lungs and the rest of the body. However the left ventricle pumps blood a longer distance and so the flow is larger, and needs to maintain the same rate of blood flow as that of the right ventricle, this is why the muscular wall is thicker in the left ventricle. The perimeter of the lumen space of the left ventricle is circular in comparison the lumen on the right ventricle which is crescent shaped. The pulmonary veins from each lung carry oxygenated blood back to the left atria and this passes to the left ventricle valve into the left ventricle which is then pumped to the aorta. 3)  Describe the four stages that make up on single heartbeat    A cardiac cycle is one heartbeat. In each cycle the atria and ventricles alternately contract and relax. This forces blood from an area of high pressure to low pressure. As a chamber of the heart contracts, the blood pressure increases, when cardiac muscle contracts this also causes blood pressure to increase and the blood is then forced out of the atria to the ventricles. Each heartbeat creates 75cm3 of blood, this has to be pumped from each ventricle and this is the stroke volume. Each cardiac cycle takes approx. 0.8 seconds. The Sino atrial node (SAN) begins a single heartbeat. The Atrio ventricular node node picks up the signal and channels it down the middle of the ventricular septum through the cardiac muscle fibres (His). This signal then spreads throughout the wall of the ventricles through the Purkyne fibres and this stimulates the ventricles to contract, once they have filled with blood. Arterial systole begins when the SAN sends a message causing atrial depolarisation. This takes approx. 0.1 second. The atria begin contracting and during this time the ventricles are relaxed. As the atria fill with blood from the vena cava and the pulmonary vein, the atrium apply pressure to the blood they contain, forcing the blood through the open AV valves and into the ventricles. Once the atria have stopped contracting, the ventricles cease relaxation. Ventricular systole lasts approx. 0.3 seconds. This is the stage of ventricular contraction. The AVN picks up the signal from the SAN and conducts the impulses which causes depolarisation and stimulates the ventricles to contract, and forcing the blood upwards. This ventricular depolarisation begins ventricular systole. The pressure rises in the ventricles and blood is pushed up against the AV valves forcing them to close. The semi lunar valves are also closed and this is isovolumetric contraction. During this time the cardiac muscle fibres contract and apply force. The ventricular volume remains the same (isovolumic). The contraction of the ventricles causes pressure to rise at a heightened level. When the right ventricle pressure is above the pressure of the pulmonary trunk the semi lunar valves open and the ejection of blood from the heart begins. The pressure in the left ventricles continues to rise to approx. 120mmHg whereas the right ventricle is 25-30mmHg. The left ventricle passes around 70ml of blood into the aorta and the right ventricle ejects the equal amount to the pulmonary trunk. The volume that is remaining in the ventricles at the end of the systole is the end systolic volume (the stroke volume) Atrial Diastole lasts approx. 0.7 seconds, and is when the atria relax, this overlaps with other stages of the heartbeat. Whilst the ventricles are still in contraction, the atria begin to fill with blood from the vena cava and the pulmonary artery. The atria and the ventricles both have periods of relaxation however as the heart beat gets faster the relaxation period gets shorter. Ventricular Diastole is a relaxation period which lasts approx. 0.4 seconds. The ventricular depolarisation causes ventricular diastole. When the pressure in the chambers of the heart falls and the blood present in the aorta and pulmonary trunk flows back to regions of low pressure in the ventricles, the back flowing blood enters the valve cusps and closes the semi lunar valves. As the ventricles relax the pressure falls at a fast rate, when the pressure falls below that of the atrial pressure the atria fill will with blood and the blood flows from the atria to the ventricles which forces the AV valves to open again. 4)  If the Sino atrial node is stimulated it triggers a wave of contractions through the heart. How does that process ensure that the atria contract together and ventricles contract from the bottom upwards? The SAN signals spread across the walls of the atria causing a contraction. This signal does not pass directly to the ventricles ensuring that the ventricles do not contract as they are not filled with blood. The AVN picks up the impulses and channels them through the bundle of His. The signal is delayed slightly and then and then spreads through the walls of the ventricles. Once they are filled will blood the ventricles can then contract. The ventricles contract from the base upwards ensuring blood is forced up, forcing the AV valves to shut and the semi lunar valves to open. The blood leaves the heart out of the vessels at high pressure, leaving the chambers at the top of the heart with great speed. Why do the atria contract together? 5)  Ã‚  An athlete is training for a big competition   Part 1 The table (attached) shows the blood flow seen in the athlete’s body at rest and during training. Explain the distribution of blood before and after exercise in the organs listed. Part 2 b) Explain how an increase in carbon dioxide when exercising will increase the cardiac output and the rate of ventilation of the athlete    *A flow chart showing factors which effect blood flow during exercise Image ref: biosbcc.net/doohan/sample/htm/COandMAPhtm.htm The volume of blood pumped by the heart is the stroke volume, on average 80cm3 is supplied at rest and this increases to 1100cm3 during exercise. During exercise the blood vessels in the muscles dilate as ATP is used up in the working muscles. The muscles work harder and respire faster, this causes more oxygen to be released from the red blood cells, creating a decrease in the partial pressure and creates products such as carbon dioxide are produced and diffuse from the muscle cells. This lowers the pH levels in the blood. The chemoreceptors detect this and the respiratory centre responds by increasing the heart rate and the ventilation rate. The capillaries to expand and dilate, as the blood flow increases and more oxygenated blood is supplied to the muscles that require it.   The gaseous exchange increases, decreasing the output of blood to other organs. Respiring cells in the tissues have a higher level of carbon dioxide concentration as the energy is being made, and this makes the haemoglobin release more oxygen. As the carbon dioxide rises the nervous impulses from the respiratory centre cause the diaphragm to contract increasing the rate of inspiration of air into the lungs. Prolonged periods of using the muscles increases the cardiac output and this increases the rate of ventilation,   the rate and force of the heart beat and this matches the body’s needs to bring more oxygen to the cells and remove more of the carbon dioxide that is being produced. The heart is pumping faster during exercise and therefore needs a higher level of blood supply to meet demand at a faster rate. During rest the heart is still working however not at such an intense level as during exercise. The brain is always supplied with the same amount of blood and is never starved regardless of the body’s activities. The muscles require more blood when they are working than when they are at rest. Therefore the organs which require oxygen are prioritised. The kidneys are not being worked harder during exercise and so the blood supply that they would receive when the body is at rest is higher than that when the body is exercising. The body supplies to meet demand and at the time of exercise, the muscles and the heart require the oxygen rather than the kidneys and other organs not involved in respiration. Once muscle contraction ceases the oxygen consumption remains above resting levels for a short period of time and this oxygen debt is the added oxygen that remains after the resting period. As the heart and muscles have been working harder, the body temperature increases due to the ATP which is being produced, the body pushes the blood to the surface of the skin surface increasing the diameter of the blood vessels carrying the blood. (Peripheral vasodilation) Part 2 a)  Ã‚  Calculate the change in cardiac output when the athlete trains Calculation At rest: 69 cm3 Divided by 1000 x 71 beats per min  Ã‚  Ã‚   = 4.89 lpm (litres per minute) During training 178 cm 3 divided by 1000 (0.178) x 162 beats per min = 28.8lpm (litres per min.) C)  Ã‚  What effect will exercise have on the athletes pulse rate and why? After exercise the pulse rate has an initial fall and then a slow return to its normal rate.   The resting pulse is 60 for a trained athlete. When exercise begins the oxygen demand is greater than the supply, therefore there is a build-up in the oxygen debt. The pulse rate and ventilation rate remains higher than normal after a period of exercise as extra oxygen is needed to replace ATP and carbon dioxide stores and oxidise the lactate acid which has accumulated as a bi product during exercise. The pulse rate increases as exercise starts and reaches a period of oxygen debt at around 90 to 150 there is then a plateau for around 5-6 minutes and then a drop at beginning resting to around 140 and then levels back to approx. 60 at complete rest. References Baker, M. Indge, B. Rowland, M. (2001) Further Studies in Biology. Cambridge:   Hodder and Staughton Blood Gas transport, New human physiology [online] Available from: zuniv.net/physiology/book/chapter15.html [accessed 19/4/2011] Boyle, M. Senior, K (2008) Human Biology Third Edition Hammersmith:   Harper Collins Ltd Cardiac output and blood pressure, Biological Sciences, Biomed 108, Human physiology [online] available from: biosbcc.net/doohan/sample/htm/COandMAPhtm.htm [accessed 22/4/2011] Hanson, M. (1999) Perspectives in advanced Biology, Cambridge,:   Hodder and Staughton Tortora, G, J. Derrickson, B, H., 12th edition, (2009) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, maintenance and continuity of the human body, Volume 1 (s.l.): John Wiley Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd Tortora, G, J. Derrickson, B, H., 12th edition, (2009) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, maintenance and continuity of the human body, Volume 2 (s.l.): John Wiley Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd Waugh, A. Grant, A., 11th edition, (2010) Ross and Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in health and illness. (s.l): Churchill Livingston Elsevier

Danielle Dawkins Essays (1509 words) - Crime, United States

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